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Category: Cisco

The Cisco category on howtokh.com is your go-to resource for mastering Cisco networking technologies, tools, and certifications. Whether you’re a beginner or an IT professional, this section offers practical guides to help you understand and work with Cisco systems. Start with Cisco basics, including routers, switches, and small network setups. Learn to configure Cisco devices with step-by-step tutorials covering VLANs, firewalls, and advanced routing protocols. Dive into Cisco network security, featuring tools like Firepower, ASA, and Umbrella, plus VPN and access control setups. Explore Cisco certifications, from CCNA to CCIE, with study resources and exam tips. For advanced users, our guides on SD-WAN, Cisco DNA, and network automation offer deeper insights into modern enterprise networking. Regularly updated with tutorials and tech trends, this category helps you gain hands-on skills, stay current with Cisco innovations, and grow your networking expertise.

  • Understanding Physical vs Virtual Interfaces on MikroTik Routers

    Understanding Physical vs Virtual Interfaces on MikroTik Routers

    MikroTik routers are known for their flexibility and advanced networking features. One of the core concepts in managing any router is understanding the difference between physical interfaces and virtual interfaces. This understanding of Physical vs Virtual Interfaces is critical for building and managing robust networks. However, they serve very different purposes. Knowing how they work will help you configure your router more effectively for various network designs and services.

    Physical Interfaces

    Definition:

    Physical interfaces are the actual hardware ports on the MikroTik router. These include Ethernet ports, fiber ports (SFP), and wireless radios.

    Examples of Physical Interfaces:

    • ether1, ether2, ether3 (standard Ethernet ports)
    • sfp1 (fiber port)
    • wlan1 (built-in wireless interface)

    Functions:

    • Connects directly to other physical devices (switches, PCs, ISPs)
    • Transmits and receives data packets physically
    • Used for WAN (internet), LAN, and direct hardware-level communication

    Key Characteristics:

    • Cannot be deleted
    • Tied to hardware
    • Requires cable or wireless connection

    Virtual Interfaces

    Definition:

    Virtual interfaces are software-based interfaces that exist within the router’s operating system (RouterOS). Understanding Physical vs Virtual Interfaces helps to explore how they don’t correspond to a physical port. Instead, they are used to create logical connections for routing. They are also used for tunneling, VLANs, bridges, and more.

    Examples of Virtual Interfaces:

    • Bridge: bridge1 (aggregates multiple interfaces into one logical interface)
    • VLAN: vlan10 (used for network segmentation)
    • PPP/PPPoE: pppoe-out1 (for authenticated WAN connections)
    • Tunnel Interfaces: gre1, ipip1, l2tp1
    • Loopback Interface: Used for testing and internal routing

    Functions:

    • Create virtual network segments (e.g., VLANs)
    • Enable advanced services like VPNs and tunnels
    • Aggregate or manage traffic logically (e.g., bridges, bonding)

    Key Characteristics:

    • Created and removed in software
    • Flexible and customizable
    • May rely on one or more physical interfaces underneath

    Comparison Table:

    FeaturePhysical InterfaceVirtual Interface
    Based on HardwareYesNo
    Can Be Created/DeletedNoYes
    Example Namesether1, wlan1, sfp1bridge1, vlan10, pppoe-out1
    FunctionPhysical connection to networkLogical/virtual function or segmentation
    Depends on Physical HWYesMay or may not
    Common UsesWAN, LAN links, Wi-FiVLANs, PPPoE, tunnels, bridges, loopbacks

    Understanding the distinction between physical and virtual interfaces in MikroTik is essential for designing efficient and secure networks. Physical vs virtual interfaces explains that physical interfaces are the actual hardware ports used for connecting devices. Virtual interfaces provide flexibility for advanced configurations, including VLANs, VPNs, and bridging. Together, they give MikroTik its powerful ability to adapt to various networking environments—from simple home setups to complex enterprise typologies.

    Mikrotik GrooveA 52 ac Outdoor Review

    The Mikrotik GrooveA 52 ac is a high-performance outdoor wireless CPE. It is designed by Mikrotik, a renowned manufacturer in the networking industry. This device falls under the category of outdoor access points. It is intended primarily for extending wireless coverage in challenging environments. These environments include marinas, industrial sites, or rural areas. With features supporting the latest 802.11ac WiFi standard, it aims to provide reliable, high-speed connectivity for various applications.

    Appearance and Design

    The Mikrotik GrooveA 52 ac boasts a compact and rugged design suited for outdoor installations. Made from durable materials, it is built to withstand harsh weather conditions. The device features a streamlined aesthetic, with a clean, modern look that integrates well into outdoor settings. Unique design elements include a built-in N-male connector. It also has pole attachment points. These allow for direct antenna connections or the use of standard antenna cables.

    Key Features and Specifications

    • 802.11ac support for high-speed wireless connectivity
    • Gigabit Ethernet port for maximum data throughput
    • Selectable wireless band (2.4GHz or 5GHz) with channel widths up to 80 MHz
    • Level 4 license included, enabling advanced features
    • Dual Band Omni directional antenna (6dBi 2.4GHz, 8dBi 5GHz)
    • CPU nominal frequency: 720 MHz
    • RAM size: 64 MB
    • Power over Ethernet (PoE) in: Passive PoE
    • Single 10/100/1000 Ethernet port

    User Experience

    The experience of using the Mikrotik GrooveA 52 ac varies among users. Some have praised its performance, particularly when utilized as a signal booster for marinas or in industrial environments. The device can provide a strong signal and seamless operation once configured correctly. Users have reported successfully setting up the device for various applications. These include mesh networks and connecting with existing Wi-Fi systems on boats.

    However, the setup process poses a significant learning curve. Many users have found the Mikrotik RouterOS complex and challenging, leading to frustration during initial configurations. There are online resources and forums. However, many users find the lack of direct support from Mikrotik contentious. Some experienced difficulties with the device being dead on arrival. Others noted that it only supports one frequency band at a time. This limitation affects its versatility for specific applications, such as wireless cameras.

    Pros and Cons

    Pros

    • Powerful performance with 802.11ac support
    • Strong and reliable outdoor connectivity
    • Compact and weather-resistant design
    • Expandable for future networking needs
    • Affordable compared to specialized marine/RV boosters

    Cons

    • Steep learning curve for setup and configuration
    • Lack of customer support from Mikrotik
    • Initial issues reported with defective units
    • Limited to one frequency band at a time

    Conclusion

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    The Mikrotik GrooveA 52 ac Outdoor CPE offers a robust solution. It is ideal for users seeking high-speed wireless connectivity in outdoor settings. Its capabilities and performance are commendable. However, potential buyers should be aware of the complexities involved in setting up the device.

    With a steep learning curve and limited customer support, it may not be the best fit for novice users. However, if users are willing to invest time in learning RouterOS, they can unlock its potential. Understanding networking principles also enhances its effectiveness. It can serve as a powerful tool to meet specific connectivity needs.

  • The diagram of PPPoE process configuration for MikroTik or Cisco

    The diagram of PPPoE process configuration for MikroTik or Cisco

    In modern network architecture, providing reliable internet access to subscribers is essential. To grasp this setup fully, a diagram of PPPoE configuration can be invaluable. It is a fundamental requirement for Internet Service Providers (ISPs) and large enterprise networks. The Point-to-Point Protocol over Ethernet (PPPoE) has become the dominant standard. It accomplishes this by merging the widespread use of Ethernet networks with the robust features of the Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP). These features include authentication, access control, and billing.

    1. PPPoE Process Diagram (Client to ISP)

    This document provides a clear, visual diagram and a detailed explanation of the end-to-end PPPoE process configuration. It will outline the critical steps, starting from initial client-server discovery (PADI, PADO, PADR, PADS). Then, it will detail the final PPP negotiation and data session. The document also illustrates the parallel configuration commands and logic for both MikroTik and Cisco devices. The aim is to serve as a practical guide. It helps network engineers and administrators accurately deploy, troubleshoot, and manage scalable PPPoE access networks.

    Below you’ll find both:

    1. A diagram illustrating the PPPoE connection process, and
    2. Example configurations for both MikroTik and Cisco routers to establish a PPPoE client connection.
    +----------------+         +----------------+          +---------------------+
| Home Router    |         | ISP Access     |          | ISP Authentication  |
| (PPPoE Client) |  --->   | Concentrator   |  --->    | Server (Radius/AAA) |
+----------------+         +----------------+          +---------------------+
       |                          |                             |
       |--- PADI (Discovery) ---> |                             |
       |<-- PADO (Offer) --------|                             |
       |--- PADR (Request) ----->|                             |
       |<-- PADS (Session OK) ---|                             |
       |                          |--- Auth (CHAP/PAP) ------->|
       |                          |<-- Auth Success / Fail ----|
       |<----- IP Assigned -------|                             |
       |------ Internet Access -------------------------------->|

    Key Phases:

    • Discovery (PADI, PADO, PADR, PADS): Establishes communication.
    • Authentication: Username/password verified by ISP.
    • Session Established: IP is assigned; data flows.

    2. PPPoE Configuration Examples

    Configuring a PPPoE service requires a clear understanding of its logical process flow. This process includes distinct stages of discovery, session establishment, and data transfer. This process is universal in concept but varies in its command-line implementation between different network operating systems. MikroTik RouterOS is known for its cost-effectiveness and flexibility. Cisco IOS/IOS-XE is renowned for its enterprise-grade robustness and security. These are two of the most prevalent platforms for deploying PPPoE services.

    A. MikroTik PPPoE Client Configuration

    You can use Winbox, WebFig, or CLI. Here’s a CLI version:

    # 1. Add a PPPoE client interface
/interface pppoe-client add \
    name=pppoe-out1 \
    interface=ether1 \
    user=your-username@isp \
    password=your-password \
    use-peer-dns=yes \
    add-default-route=yes \
    disabled=no

    Explanation:

    • interface=ether1: This is your WAN port connected to the ISP modem or line.
    • user / password: Your ISP-provided PPPoE credentials.
    • use-peer-dns=yes: Accept DNS from ISP.
    • add-default-route=yes: Adds default internet route through PPPoE.

    B. Cisco Router PPPoE Configuration

    For Cisco IOS devices, PPPoE requires a Dialer interface:

    ! 1. Configure Ethernet interface connected to the modem
interface Ethernet0
 no ip address
 pppoe enable
 pppoe-client dial-pool-number 1

! 2. Create a dialer interface
interface Dialer1
 ip address negotiated
 encapsulation ppp
 dialer pool 1
 dialer-group 1
 ppp chap hostname your-username@isp
 ppp chap password your-password
 ppp pap sent-username your-username@isp password your-password
!
ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 Dialer1

    Explanation:

    • pppoe enable: Enables PPPoE client mode on Ethernet.
    • dialer pool: Logical link for managing the session.
    • ppp chap/pap: Authentication methods.
    • ip address negotiated: IP will be assigned by the ISP.
    • The default route via Dialer1 enables internet access.

    The PPPoE process is a crucial mechanism for authenticated Internet access used by ISPs around the world. It includes multiple handshake steps (PADI, PADO, PADR, PADS), authentication via PAP or CHAP, and IP address allocation. MikroTik and Cisco routers both support PPPoE with clear configuration paths. MikroTik uses a direct PPPoE client on an interface, while Cisco uses a dialer-based model for session management.

    Nighthawk Tri-Band WiFi Review

    The NETGEAR Nighthawk Tri-Band Whole Home Mesh WiFi 6 System (MK73S) is an innovative networking solution. It is designed for modern households that require robust internet connectivity. This product is manufactured by NETGEAR, a leader in networking technology. It falls under the category of mesh WiFi systems. The system aims to provide seamless internet coverage for homes up to 4,500 square feet. It is intended for users looking to enhance their WiFi experience for activities like streaming, online gaming, and teleconferencing.

    Appearance and Design

    The MK73S system has a sleek and modern aesthetic, featuring a compact design that integrates well with most home decor. Each unit in the tri-band setup is finished in matte black. This design has a minimalistic style. It ensures an unobtrusive presence in any room. The router and satellite extenders are made from durable plastic. They feel sturdy.

    The ventilation ports are discreetly placed to maintain a clean look. They do not compromise performance. A unique design feature is the LED indicator lights on the front. They provide real-time feedback on connectivity status and performance.

    Key Features and Specifications

    • Coverage up to 4,500 sq. ft. and supports 25+ devices.
    • AX3000 Gigabit speed with WiFi 6 technology.
    • Compatible with any internet service provider up to 1Gbps.
    • Three 1G Ethernet ports are on both the router and satellite extenders.
    • Includes NETGEAR Armor software for enhanced security (1-year subscription included).
    • Automatic firmware updates and built-in security features.
    • Easy setup and management through the Nighthawk app.

    User Experience

    Upon setting up the NETGEAR MK73S, the process was remarkably straightforward. I used the Nighthawk app to install the system. It took me under 15 minutes, thanks to the guided setup instructions. Once operational, the performance exceeded expectations. Streaming HD videos on platforms like Netflix was smooth, with no buffering interruptions. Online gaming felt responsive, and video conferencing was clear without lag.

    In various scenarios, the mesh system effectively eliminated dead zones that previously existed in my home. The tri-band feature ensured that multiple devices could connect simultaneously without sacrificing speed. I tested the system with smart home devices, laptops, and mobile phones, and performance remained consistently high across the board.

    Pros and Cons

    Pros

    • Extensive coverage area, ideal for larger homes.
    • High-speed performance with WiFi 6 technology.
    • Easy setup and management via mobile app.
    • Robust security features with NETGEAR Armor.
    • Multiple Ethernet ports for wired connections.

    Cons

    • Price point may be higher compared to basic routers.
    • Some users may experience initial setup difficulties if they are not tech-savvy.
    • Limited support for advanced configurations may be a drawback for networking enthusiasts.

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    The NETGEAR Nighthawk Tri-Band Whole Home Mesh WiFi 6 System (MK73S) excels in performance. It also offers great coverage and ease of use. It stands out as a reliable solution for anyone seeking to enhance their home network, especially in larger spaces. The product comes with a premium price tag. However, the advanced features justify the investment.

    The security options are ideal for those who prioritize high-speed connectivity and device management. I strongly recommend this product for families. It is also ideal for individuals needing a strong and secure WiFi network for varied online activities.

    The security options are ideal for those who prioritize high-speed connectivity and device management. I strongly recommend this product for families. It is also ideal for individuals needing a strong and secure WiFi network for varied online activities.

  • What is PPPoE? (Point-to-Point Protocol over Ethernet)

    What is PPPoE? (Point-to-Point Protocol over Ethernet)

    🔍 In broadband networking—especially for DSL and fiber connections—PPPoE (Point-to-Point Protocol over Ethernet) is a widely used protocol. It allows ISPs (Internet Service Providers) to manage user authentication, session control, and IP allocation over Ethernet networks. It’s commonly used in home and small business internet setups, including on devices like MikroTik routers and DSL modems.

    PPPoE Explained

    Definition:

    PPPoE is a protocol that encapsulates PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol) frames inside Ethernet frames. It combines the functionality of PPP, such as authentication, encryption, and compression, with Ethernet. This allows multiple users to connect to a single Ethernet line. Each user is individually authenticated by the ISP.

    Function of PPPoE

    PPPoE is used to:

    1. Authenticate Users – Users must enter a username and password, which the ISP verifies.
    2. Assign IP Addresses – Once authenticated, the ISP dynamically assigns an IP address (private or public).
    3. Track Usage/Billing – The ISP can manage and monitor usage per user session.
    4. Support Multiple Users – It allows multiple clients on the same link to be handled separately.

    How PPPoE Works: Step-by-Step

    1. Discovery Phase
      • The router or PC sends out a PPPoE discovery packet (PADILooking for an Access Concentrator (ISP device).
    2. Session Initialization
      • The ISP replies, and a session is established (PADR, PADS).
    3. Authentication Phase
      • The user provides credentials (username/password).
      • ISP uses PAP or CHAP to authenticate.
    4. Session Established
      • Once authenticated, the ISP assigns an IP address to the client.
      • A virtual tunnel is formed between the user’s router and the ISP.
    5. Data Transfer
      • Internet access begins over this authenticated tunnel.
    6. Session Termination
      • The session can be terminated by the user, router, or ISP.

    Comparison: PPPoE Account vs Public IP Address

    FeaturePPPoE AccountPublic IP Address
    DefinitionA login-based internet connection methodA unique IP address assigned to a device
    Used ForUser authentication and session managementRouting traffic directly to/from the internet
    Assigned ByISP, based on user credentialsISP, usually static or dynamic
    Requires LoginYes (Username & Password)No login; assigned automatically
    Dynamic/StaticUsually dynamic, but can be staticCan be static or dynamic
    VisibilityTraffic is behind PPP session (sometimes NATed)Directly exposed to the internet
    Common onDSL, Fiber routers (e.g., MikroTik, TP-Link)Servers, business routers, high-end plans
    Security LevelHigher (due to authentication)Lower (if exposed; needs firewall rules)

    PPPoE provides a secure, manageable way for ISPs to authenticate and assign IP addresses to users over Ethernet networks. It plays a crucial role in environments where user-level session management is needed. A PPPoE account ensures authenticated access to the internet service. A public IP address determines how a device is reachable on the Internet.

    Understanding both is vital for network administrators, especially when setting up routers like MikroTik or Cisco. Visit the diagram of the PPPoE process or example configurations for MikroTik or Cisco routers.

    Product Review: Cisco Business Switch

    The Cisco Business CBS110-16T Unmanaged Switch is a 16-port Gigabit Ethernet switch. It is designed for small to medium-sized businesses. These businesses seek reliable network performance without the need for extensive IT management. Cisco, a leader in network technology, manufactures this unmanaged switch. It is ideal for environments such as retail stores, open-plan offices, and classrooms. Simplicity and efficiency are paramount in these settings.

    Appearance and Design

    The CBS110-16T features an elegant and compact design that seamlessly integrates into various settings. With a sturdy exterior, the switch is built to withstand daily use while maintaining a professional appearance. The absence of cooling fans ensures silent operation, making it suitable for noise-sensitive environments. Its compact size provides versatile installation options. It can be placed on a desk, mounted on a wall, or situated in a wiring closet.

    Key Features and Specifications

    • Ports: 16 x 10/100/1000 Gigabit Ethernet ports
    • Plug-and-Play: No configuration needed, making it easy to set up and use.
    • Flexibility: Supports various configurations, including PoE options for powering devices.
    • Performance: Integrated Quality of Service (QoS) for optimizing delay-sensitive services.
    • Energy Efficiency: Compliant with IEEE802.3az Energy Efficient Ethernet, reducing operational costs.
    • Warranty: Limited lifetime warranty and one-year technical support.

    Experience Using the Product

    In my experience with the Cisco CBS110-16T, the installation process was straightforward. Plugging in the cables and powering on the device resulted in immediate connectivity without any complex configuration. The switch performed reliably in various scenarios. It handled basic office networking tasks efficiently. It also managed multiple video streams during presentations in a classroom setting. The QoS feature noticeably improved video quality, ensuring seamless playback without lag.

    Powering devices through PoE has been a game-changer, allowing for a cleaner setup without excess cabling clutter. Its quiet operation means it can comfortably reside in an office environment without being distracting. The energy-efficient design also contributes to reduced power bills, making it a wise investment for budget-conscious users.

    Pros and Cons

    Pros

    • Easy plug-and-play setup.
    • Compact and visually appealing design.
    • Reliable performance with QoS for sensitive applications.
    • Energy-efficient and fanless operation.
    • Limited lifetime warranty providing peace of mind.

    Cons

    • Limited to unmanaged features, which may not suit advanced users needing configuration options.
    • No built-in management interface for monitoring traffic or performance.

    Conclusion

    The Cisco Business CBS110-16T Unmanaged Switch is an excellent choice. It stands out for small to medium-sized businesses looking for a reliable and efficient networking solution. Its user-friendly design makes it suitable for a variety of environments. Its robust performance also adds to its adaptability. Additionally, its energy-efficient features help reduce operational costs.

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    Although it lacks advanced management options, it offers plug-and-play simplicity. Its solid warranty makes it a compelling option for those who prioritize ease of use and dependability. I would highly recommend the CBS110-16T for anyone in need of a straightforward networking solution.

    Although it lacks advanced management options, it offers plug-and-play simplicity. Its solid warranty makes it a compelling option for those who prioritize ease of use and dependability. I would highly recommend the CBS110-16T for anyone in need of a straightforward networking solution.

  • How to Configure NAT (Masquerade Rule) on MikroTik

    How to Configure NAT (Masquerade Rule) on MikroTik

    When setting up a MikroTik router for internet sharing, one of the essential steps is configuring Network Address Translation (NAT). This setup lets devices in your local network (LAN) communicate with external networks. They use the router’s public IP.

    Configuring NAT (Masquerade) in MikroTik

    The most common form of NAT used in MikroTik is masquerading. It dynamically changes the source IP address of outbound packets to the router’s WAN IP. Below are the steps to configure NAT using a masquerade rule in MikroTik:

    1. Log in to Your MikroTik Router

    2. Identify Your Interfaces

    • Go to Interfaces and identify:
      • Your LAN interface (e.g., ether2, bridge)
      • Your WAN interface (e.g., ether1 or PPPoE)
    How to Configure NAT (Masquerade Rule) on MikroTik

    We can assign a name for notifying

    How to Configure NAT (Masquerade Rule) on MikroTik

    3. Add a Masquerade NAT Rule

    • Go to IP > Firewall > NAT tab
    • Click on “+” to add a new NAT rule
    How to Configure NAT (Masquerade Rule) on MikroTik

    4. Configure the General Tab

    • Chain: srcnat
    • Out. Interface: Select your WAN interface (e.g., ether1)
    Click on “+” to add a new NAT rule

    5. Configure the Action Tab

    • Action: masquerade
    How to Configure NAT (Masquerade Rule) on MikroTik

    6. Apply and OK

    • Click Apply, then OK to save the rule.

    ✅ You now have a masquerade rule that translates your internal IPs to the router’s external IP, enabling internet access.

    Optional: Check Connectivity

    • Use the Terminal and run: ping 8.8.8.8 Or try accessing websites from a device on the LAN to confirm internet connectivity.

    Setting up a masquerade NAT rule on MikroTik is a critical part of allowing LAN clients to access the internet. It ensures that your private IP addresses are properly translated to a public IP as packets leave the router. Once configured, your devices should be able to browse the web and connect to online services seamlessly. Learn more about NAT, the process of NAT translation between Private and public IP addresses.

    Mikrotik Cloud Core Router Review

    The Mikrotik CCR2116-12G-4S+ is a high-performance cloud core router designed for demanding network environments. Mikrotik manufactures this router. The company is a renowned leader in networking equipment. This router is ideal for Internet Service Providers (ISPs) and businesses requiring advanced routing capabilities. It also offers excellent performance. With robust specifications and features, it caters to both small and large network settings, ensuring reliable connectivity and speed.

    Product Appearance and Design

    The Mikrotik CCR2116-12G-4S+ boasts a sleek and professional design, suitable for both office and data center environments. The chassis is made from durable materials that provide both sturdiness and aesthetic appeal. The front panel has 12 Gigabit Ethernet ports. It also includes 4 SFP+ slots. This makes it easy to connect various network devices. The router’s design allows for efficient heat dissipation, ensuring it operates optimally even under heavy load.

    Key Features and Specifications

    • RAM: 16GB
    • Ports: 13 x Gigabit Ethernet (Gb) ports
    • SFP+ Slots: 4 for fiber connectivity
    • RouterOS: Advanced operating system for sophisticated routing and networking tasks
    • VPN Support: Capable of functioning as a VPN server with protocols like WireGuard and SSTP
    • Performance: Designed to handle heavy traffic and multiple devices seamlessly

    Experience Using the Product

    Users have reported an impressive performance. This is particularly true in environments with up to 50 PCs. The router managed traffic efficiently without any noticeable lag. The router can handle heavy data loads. This makes it an excellent choice for setups that require high bandwidth. Examples include media streaming, gaming, or large file transfers.

    The RouterOS software may present a learning curve for beginners. However, the Winbox GUI simplifies configuration for users unfamiliar with command-line interfaces. Many users have appreciated its versatility in setting up VPNs and VLANs, enhancing its functionality in complex network configurations.

    One user noted a minor issue with the power connector. It required some adjustment. This did not affect the overall operation of the router. Fast delivery times were also highlighted, demonstrating reliable service from the manufacturer.

    Pros and Cons

    • High performance and reliability for demanding networks
    • Versatile configuration options, including advanced routing features
    • Cost-effective compared to Cisco routers with similar functionalities
    • Robust build quality and professional design
    • Excellent support for VPN services
    • Fast delivery and good customer service are reported by users

    Cons

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    • Steeper learning curve for beginners due to RouterOS complexity
    • Minor issues with the power connector design

    Overall, the Mikrotik CCR2116-12G-4S+ is an outstanding router that combines high performance, advanced features, and affordability. It is particularly suited for businesses and ISPs that need a reliable networking solution without breaking the bank.

    There may be a learning curve associated with its software. However, the benefits are much greater for those willing to invest the time. For anyone looking for a powerful router that offers extensive functionality, the Mikrotik CCR2116-12G-4S+ comes highly recommended.

  • NAT Translation Diagram (Private ↔ Public)

    NAT Translation Diagram (Private ↔ Public)

    Here are diagrams and example commands for configuring NAT on MikroTik and Cisco routers. These resources show how the NAT process works in real practice. Understanding NAT Translation processing is crucial for effective network management.

    1. NAT Translation Diagram (Private ↔ Public)

    Here’s a simplified diagram of the NAT process, illustrating the steps involved in translating network addresses. It is essential to grasp how NAT Translation processing fits into this picture.

    +------------------+                +------------------------+
|  PC (Client)     |                |   Public Web Server    |
|  192.168.1.100   |                |   93.184.216.34        |
+--------+---------+                +-----------+------------+
         |                                      ^
         | Private IP Packet                    |
         | SRC: 192.168.1.100:45000             |
         | DST: 93.184.216.34:80                |
         v                                      |
+--------+---------+      NAT Translation       |
| MikroTik / Cisco |----------------------------+
| Public IP: 203.0.113.5                        |
+------------------+                            |
         | NATed Packet                          |
         | SRC: 203.0.113.5:62001                |
         | DST: 93.184.216.34:80                 |
         v                                      |
   ↔ Internet (WAN) ↔                            |
                                                |
         Response Packet                         |
         SRC: 93.184.216.34:80                   |
         DST: 203.0.113.5:62001                  |
         v                                      |
+------------------+  NAT Table Lookup          |
| MikroTik / Cisco |----------------------------+
+--------+---------+                            |
         | Rewritten Packet                     |
         | SRC: 93.184.216.34:80                |
         | DST: 192.168.1.100:45000             |
         v                                      v
+------------------+                +------------------------+
|  PC (Client)     |                |   Public Web Server    |
+------------------+                +------------------------+

    2. MikroTik Example Command

    This is how to configure NAT (masquerade) on MikroTik, showcasing NAT translation techniques in action. These techniques are part of the NAT Translation processing that occurs internally:

    /ip firewall nat
add chain=srcnat out-interface=ether1 action=masquerade

    Explanation:

    • chain=srcnat: Tells MikroTik this is a source NAT rule.
    • out-interface=ether1: The WAN interface (your internet-facing port).
    • action=masquerade: Enables dynamic NAT, using the router’s public IP.

    3. Cisco Router Example Configuration (PAT)

    Here’s how you configure NAT with Port Address Translation (PAT) on a Cisco router, effectively using NAT translation in networking. The NAT Translation processing on Cisco is integral for handling multiple devices:

    Step-by-Step CLI:

    ! Define inside and outside interfaces
interface FastEthernet0/0
 ip address 192.168.1.1 255.255.255.0
 ip nat inside
!
interface FastEthernet0/1
 ip address 203.0.113.5 255.255.255.0
 ip nat outside
!
! Create access list to match internal hosts
access-list 1 permit 192.168.1.0 0.0.0.255
!
! Apply NAT rule (PAT)
ip nat inside source list 1 interface FastEthernet0/1 overload

    Explanation:

    • ip nat inside/outside: Defines direction for NAT.
    • access-list 1: Matches internal IP range.
    • overload: Enables PAT (many-to-one mapping using ports).

    Both MikroTik and Cisco use NAT to allow private devices to share a public IP for internet access. MikroTik uses masquerade, while Cisco commonly uses PAT, which includes crucial NAT Translation processing steps. This process relies on successful NAT translation for matching internal IPs to external IPs and ports. It involves maintaining a translation table. It also ensures traffic flows correctly in both directions.

    Product Review: Cisco Business Switch

    The Cisco Business CBS110-24T Unmanaged Switch is a reliable networking solution designed for small to medium-sized businesses. This switch is manufactured by Cisco, a leading provider of networking equipment. It falls into the category of unmanaged switches. This makes it an excellent choice for users needing a straightforward plug-and-play installation.

    Extensive IT knowledge is not required. Its intended use spans various environments. These include retail stores, open-plan offices, and educational institutions. In these settings, flexibility and ease of use are paramount.

    Appearance and Design

    The Cisco CBS110-24T sports a sleek and compact design, making it an aesthetically pleasing addition to any workspace. Its form factor is designed for easy installation outside of typical wiring closets, allowing for versatility in placement. The switch is constructed from durable materials that ensure longevity and reliability, showcasing Cisco’s commitment to quality. Unique design features include a fanless operation, ensuring silent performance, which is particularly beneficial in noise-sensitive environments.

    Key Features and Specifications

    • Ports: 24 x 10/100/1000 Mbps ports + 2 x 1G SFP (Shared)
    • Installation: Plug-and-play with no IT expertise required
    • Performance: Gigabit Ethernet with integrated quality-of-service (QoS) intelligence
    • Design: Compact and elegant, suitable for various environments
    • Energy Efficiency: Compliant with IEEE802.3az Energy Efficient Ethernet
    • Warranty: Limited lifetime warranty and one-year technical support
    • Loop Detection: Equipped with features to avoid broadcast storms

    User Experience

    In various scenarios, the Cisco CBS110-24T has proven to be a robust and efficient networking solution. During installation, the plug-and-play feature was genuinely hassle-free. This allowed the switch to integrate seamlessly into existing networks. It did not require complex configurations. In a busy office setting, the switch handled multiple high-demand applications.

    These included video conferencing and large file transfers. This was possible thanks to its gigabit speeds and QoS capabilities. The fanless design was a significant advantage in maintaining a quiet work environment. Additionally, the energy-efficient operation helped lower utility bills.

    Pros and Cons

    Pros

    • Easy plug-and-play installation
    • High performance with gigabit speeds
    • Compact and aesthetically pleasing design
    • Energy-efficient operation
    • Limited lifetime warranty and good customer support

    Cons

    • Unmanaged switch may not suit users needing advanced features or configurations
    • Limited to 2 SFP ports, which may not be enough for larger setups

    [content-egg-block template=top_listing_show_more]

    The Cisco Business CBS110-24T Unmanaged Switch is an excellent choice for small to medium-sized businesses. It is perfect for those looking for a reliable and easy-to-use networking solution. Its combination of performance, energy efficiency, and design makes it an appealing option for various environments.

    While it may not offer the advanced features of managed switches, it is simple and effective. This positions it as a valuable asset for users needing straightforward networking capabilities. The limited lifetime warranty adds peace of mind, making this switch a worthy investment for your business’s networking needs.

  • Processing of NAT translation between Private and Public IP

    Processing of NAT translation between Private and Public IP

    Here’s a detailed explanation of how NAT (Network Address Translation) works. It processes the translation between private and public IP addresses.

    NAT Translation Process: Private to Public IP

    This includes a step-by-step transformation of the data packet. The explanation also shows how routers handle this communication. Visit the diagram of NAT from Private IP to Public IP.

    Scenario:

    • A device on a private network (e.g., 192.168.1.100) wants to access a website on the internet (e.g., www.example.com with IP 93.184.216.34).
    • The router has a public IP address (e.g., 203.0.113.5).

    Step: NAT Translation (Outbound Request)

    1. Device Sends a Request

    • Source IP: 192.168.1.100 (Private IP of device)
    • Destination IP: 93.184.216.34 (Public IP of website)
    • Source Port: e.g., 45000
    • Destination Port: 80 (HTTP)

    Packet Before NAT (LAN side):

    SRC IP: 192.168.1.100:45000
DST IP: 93.184.216.34:80

    2. Router Performs NAT Translation

    • The router looks at its NAT table or creates a new entry.
    • It replaces the source IP and port with its public IP and a unique port number (e.g., 203.0.113.5:62001).

    Packet After NAT (WAN side):

    SRC IP: 203.0.113.5:62001
DST IP: 93.184.216.34:80

    ➡ NAT Table Entry Created:

    192.168.1.100:45000 → 203.0.113.5:62001

    Step: NAT Translation (Inbound Response)

    3. Web Server Sends a Reply

    • The server responds to 203.0.113.5:62001

    Packet Received on Router:

    SRC IP: 93.184.216.34:80
DST IP: 203.0.113.5:62001

    4. Router Looks Up NAT Table

    • Router checks the destination port (62001) and finds the corresponding internal IP and port.

    ➡ NAT Table Lookup:

    203.0.113.5:62001 → 192.168.1.100:45000

    5. Router Rewrites the Packet

    • The router changes the destination IP and port back to the internal device’s IP and source port.

    Final Packet Delivered to LAN:

    SRC IP: 93.184.216.34:80
DST IP: 192.168.1.100:45000

    Summary of the NAT Process:

    PhaseDestination IP PortDestination IP : PortWhat Happens
    Outbound (Before)192.168.1.100:45000Destination IP: PortThe device sends a request
    NAT Translation203.0.113.5:6200193.184.216.34:80Router modifies source IP/port
    Inbound (Reply)93.184.216.34:80203.0.113.5:62001Server replies to translated IP
    Reverse NAT93.184.216.34:80192.168.1.100:45000The router rewrites and delivers the packet

    NAT translation is a seamless process. It allows private devices to communicate with the public internet by rewriting IP addresses. It also modifies port information in real time. The router maintains a NAT table to track active connections and correctly routes return traffic. Whether using MikroTik, Cisco, or any other router, this translation process ensures efficient and secure use of public IP resources.

    You can also see the diagram or example commands for MikroTik or Cisco routers showing this process. Whether using MikroTik, Cisco, or any other router, this translation process ensures efficient and secure use of public IP resources. You can also see the diagram or example commands for MikroTik or Cisco routers showing this process.

  • Understanding NAT: Network Address Translation

    Understanding NAT: Network Address Translation

    In today’s networking environments, especially with the increasing number of devices requiring internet access, managing IP addresses efficiently is crucial. This is where NAT (Network Address Translation) plays a vital role. NAT is widely used in routers and firewalls from vendors like MikroTik, Cisco, Juniper, and others. It enables multiple devices on a local network to access the internet using a single public IP address. This process helps with both security and IP address conservation.

    What is NAT?

    Network Address Translation (NAT) is a method used in networking. It modifies IP address information in the IP packet headers. This modification occurs while the packets are in transit across a router or firewall. The primary purpose of NAT is to allow multiple private IP addresses to share a single public IP address. This occurs when accessing the internet.

    Function of NAT:

    NAT serves several key functions:

    1. IP Address Conservation
      • NAT allows hundreds of devices with private IP addresses (like 192.168.x.x or 10.x.x.x) to connect to the internet using a single public IP.
    2. Security
      • It hides internal network structures, making it more difficult for external attackers to directly target internal devices.
    3. Routing Flexibility
      • NAT allows the internal addressing scheme to be independent of external networks, offering flexibility in network design.

    How NAT Works:

    Here’s a simplified explanation:

    • A device on the LAN sends a request to the Internet (e.g., opening a website).
    • The router (e.g., MikroTik or Cisco) modifies the source IP address of the packet from the private IP (e.g., 192.168.1.10) to the public IP (e.g., 203.0.113.5).
    • The router keeps a translation table mapping private IPs and port numbers to the corresponding public IP and port.
    • When the response from the internet arrives, the router refers to this table. It rewrites the destination IP back to the internal device’s private IP.
    • The device receives the reply without needing to know that NAT occurred.

    You can visit to learn more about the processing of NAT translation between Private and Public IP addresses. Check the diagram for details on how it translates from Private IP to Public IP.

    MikroTik Routers

    • MikroTik uses masquerade, a type of dynamic NAT. It automatically handles IP changes on dynamic WAN interfaces (like PPPoE).
    • Configuration involves setting a NAT rule in the firewall that targets the WAN interface and uses the “masquerade” action.

    Cisco Routers

    • Cisco supports several types of NAT: Static NAT, Dynamic NAT, and PAT (Port Address Translation), which is similar to masquerading.
    • Configured via CLI using commands like ip nat inside and ip nat outside, along with ip nat translation rules.

    Other Vendors

    • Vendors like Juniper, Fortinet, and Ubiquiti offer similar NAT features. There are variations in terminology and interface, but the core functionality remains the same.

    Types of NAT:

    1. Static NAT – One-to-one mapping between private and public IP.
    2. Dynamic NAT – Automatically assigns a public IP from a pool.
    3. PAT (Port Address Translation) / Masquerade – Many-to-one mapping uses different port numbers. This method is most common in home and small business setups.

    NAT is a foundational technology in networking that allows efficient use of IP addresses and adds a layer of security. Whether on a MikroTik, Cisco, or any other router, NAT ensures seamless internet access for internal devices. It prevents exposing them directly. Understanding NAT is essential for any network administrator or IT professional, as it underpins how most modern networks operate today.

  • What is MQTT? Message Queuing Telemetry Transport

    What is MQTT? Message Queuing Telemetry Transport

    Welcome to howtokh.com, your trusted source for technology insights, travel guides, business tips, and much more. Today’s spotlight is on MQTT, a powerful protocol widely used in IoT (Internet of Things). Dive in to understand its purpose, workings, and practical applications in the digital world.

    What is MQTT?

    MQTT (Message Queuing Telemetry Transport) is a lightweight, publish-subscribe messaging protocol designed for constrained devices and low-bandwidth, high-latency networks. It is widely used in IoT applications to facilitate communication between devices, sensors, and systems.

    Why Do We Use MQTT?

    MQTT is essential because it:

    1. Enables Efficient Communication: Optimized for low-bandwidth environments, making it ideal for IoT devices.
    2. Supports Lightweight Messaging: Minimal overhead ensures reliable data transfer even over unstable connections.
    3. Provides Scalability: Handles many clients efficiently in both small and large networks.
    4. Ensures Reliability: Includes Quality of Service (QoS) levels to manage message delivery guarantees.
    5. Facilitates Flexibility: Its publish-subscribe model decouples message producers and consumers, simplifying system architecture.
    What is MQTT Message Queuing Telemetry Transport

    How Does MQTT Work?

    MQTT operates using a client-broker architecture and follows these steps:

    1. Clients: Devices or applications acting as publishers (sending messages) or subscribers (receiving messages).
    2. Broker: A central server that routes messages between publishers and subscribers.
    3. Topics: Messages are categorized by “topics,” allowing clients to subscribe to specific categories.
    4. Publish-Subscribe Model:
      • A publisher sends messages to a topic.
      • The broker delivers these messages to all subscribers of that topic.

    MQTT also supports QoS levels to control message delivery:

    • QoS 0: At most once (no confirmation).
    • QoS 1: At least once (confirmation required).
    • QoS 2: Exactly once (ensures no duplication).

    Port Numbers Used by MQTT

    • Default Port (Unsecured): 1883
    • Secure Port (TLS/SSL): 8883
    What is MQTT Message Queuing Telemetry Transport

    Example of MQTT in Action

    Scenario: A smart home system uses MQTT for communication between sensors, devices, and a mobile app.

    • Publish: A temperature sensor publishes data 25°C to the topic. home/livingroom/temperature.
    • Broker: The broker receives the message and forwards it to all clients subscribed to that topic.
    • Subscribe: The mobile app subscribed to home/livingroom/temperature displays the temperature data in real-time.

    Code snippet (Python with paho-mqtt):

    import paho.mqtt.client as mqtt

# Define broker and topic
broker = "test.mosquitto.org"
topic = "home/livingroom/temperature"

# Callback for message reception
def on_message(client, userdata, message):
    print(f"Received message: {message.payload.decode()} on topic {message.topic}")

# Create client instance and connect
client = mqtt.Client()
client.on_message = on_message
client.connect(broker, 1883)

# Subscribe to topic and start loop
client.subscribe(topic)
client.loop_forever()

    This script subscribes to the topic and prints received messages, simulating real-time data updates in an IoT system.

    What is MQTT Message Queuing Telemetry Transport


    MQTT is a cornerstone protocol in IoT, enabling seamless and efficient communication for smart devices worldwide. By mastering MQTT, you unlock the potential to create robust, scalable IoT systems. Visit howtokh.com for more in-depth articles about technology, IoT, and cutting-edge innovations.

    When We Use MQTT Protocol in Network:

    1. Internet of Things (IoT) Devices
      • MQTT is widely used to connect IoT devices. These devices include sensors, smart appliances, and wearable devices. They connect to a central server or broker.
    2. Low-Bandwidth or Unreliable Networks
      • MQTT is lightweight. It is ideal for networks with limited bandwidth or intermittent connectivity. This makes it suitable for remote sensors or mobile devices.
    3. Real-Time Data Transmission
      • MQTT allows instant messaging and data updates. This makes it suitable for applications like home automation. It is also ideal for stock trading alerts or live telemetry systems.
    4. Publish/Subscribe Communication Model
      • Devices or applications can publish data to topics and subscribe to receive relevant information, ensuring efficient one-to-many communication.
    5. Monitoring and Control Systems
      • MQTT is used in industrial automation, smart cities, and energy management to monitor sensors and control devices in real time.

    MQTT is used in networks whenever lightweight, efficient, and real-time communication is required, especially for IoT applications and distributed systems. It uses a publish/subscribe model. This, combined with minimal bandwidth requirements, makes it ideal for connecting large numbers of devices. It is also excellent for monitoring sensors and enabling automated control in both consumer and industrial networks.

  • What is a CRM System? Customer Relationship Management

    What is a CRM System? Customer Relationship Management

    Welcome to howtokh.com, your go-to platform for insightful articles about technology, business, health, travel, and more. Today, we’re diving into CRM systems, a vital tool for modern businesses. Read on to learn what CRM is. Discover how it works. Understand why it’s so essential for success in today’s competitive world.

    What is a CRM System?

    CRM (Customer Relationship Management) systems are software tools. They help businesses manage, track, and improve their interactions with current customers. They also assist with potential customers. A CRM acts as a central hub where businesses store customer information, track communication history, and manage sales pipelines.

    Why Do We Use CRM Systems?

    CRM systems are essential for businesses because they:

    1. Enhance Customer Relationships: Centralize customer data, making interactions personalized and efficient.
    2. Improve Sales Management: Track leads, monitor deals, and predict future sales trends.
    3. Increase Productivity: Automate repetitive tasks like sending follow-up emails or scheduling calls.
    4. Provide Insights: Generate detailed reports and analytics for better decision-making.
    5. Boost Customer Retention: Help identify and address customer needs proactively.

    How Does a CRM System Work?

    CRM systems operate by collecting and organizing customer-related data from various touchpoints, such as:

    1. Data Capture: Pulling information from emails, social media, phone calls, and websites.
    2. Centralized Database: Storing all customer data in one place for easy access.
    3. Automation: Streamlining processes like lead assignment, email campaigns, and customer support ticketing.
    4. Analytics and Reporting: Offering insights into customer behavior, sales performance, and marketing effectiveness.
    5. Integration: Connecting with other tools, such as email platforms, e-commerce software, or social media channels.

    The system is used by sales, marketing, and support teams to ensure cohesive communication and efficient management of customer relationships.

    Example of a CRM System

    A well-known example is Salesforce, a cloud-based CRM platform. Here’s how a business might use Salesforce:

    • Lead Management: Automatically assign new leads to sales reps.
    • Customer Interaction Tracking: Record phone calls, emails, and meetings with each customer.
    • Marketing Campaigns: Automate email campaigns targeted at specific customer segments.
    • Analytics: Generate reports on customer demographics, sales trends, and campaign performance.

    A small business can use Salesforce to track a lead’s journey. This includes the initial inquiry to the closing of a deal. This ensures no opportunities are missed.

    What is a CRM System Customer Relationship Management


    CRM systems are indispensable tools for businesses aiming to foster strong customer relationships and drive growth. By understanding CRM’s capabilities, you can unlock new opportunities for efficiency and success. Explore more about business tools and strategies on howtokh.com, and stay ahead in the ever-evolving world of technology and management.

    When We Use a CRM System

    1. Centralized Customer Data Management
      • A CRM system stores customer information (contacts, purchase history, communication logs) in a central database accessible across the network.
    2. Sales and Marketing Management
      • Sales teams use CRM to track leads, opportunities, and campaigns. Marketing teams analyze customer data to run targeted campaigns.
    3. Customer Support and Service
      • Customer service teams access the CRM to resolve tickets, manage support requests, and track customer interactions efficiently.
    4. Collaboration Across Departments
      • Employees in sales, marketing, and support can share customer information through the network, improving communication and collaboration.
    5. Remote Access and Mobility
      • Cloud-based CRMs allow employees to access customer data over the internet from any location or device.
    6. Data Analytics and Reporting
      • CRM systems generate reports and analytics over the network. These help managers make data-driven decisions about sales performance, customer behavior, and trends.

    A CRM system is used in a network whenever an organization needs to centralize customer information. It is also useful for managing and sharing this data across teams. It helps improve sales, marketing, customer service, and overall business efficiency.

  • What is RTP? Real-time Transport Protocol

    What is RTP? Real-time Transport Protocol

    Welcome to howtokh.com, your trusted platform for exploring key concepts in technology, travel, health, and beyond. Dive into our insightful guides and learn something new every day. Today’s focus is on RTP, a crucial component in real-time communications. Read on to uncover its significance, workings, and examples.

    What is RTP?

    RTP (Real-time Transport Protocol) is a network protocol designed for delivering audio, video, and other real-time data over IP networks. It is widely used in multimedia communications such as Voice over IP (VoIP), video conferencing, and live streaming. RTP is part of a larger set of protocols. These protocols are developed to support real-time communication. RTP typically works alongside RTCP (Real-Time Control Protocol), which manages quality.

    Why Do We Use RTP?

    RTP is essential for:

    1. Real-Time Communication: Ensures low-latency transmission of audio and video, critical for live interactions.
    2. Synchronization: Manages timing and sequence information, ensuring media streams play smoothly without delays or distortion.
    3. Flexibility: Supports a variety of codecs and payload formats, making it versatile across multiple applications.
    4. Scalability: Works efficiently for one-to-one, one-to-many, and many-to-many communication setups.
    What is RTP Real-time Transport Protocol

    How Does RTP Work?

    RTP operates on top of the User Datagram Protocol (UDP). It ensures fast transmission. This is achieved without the overhead of reliability mechanisms like in TCP. Here’s how RTP functions:

    1. Packetization: Data such as audio or video is divided into small packets, each labeled with sequence numbers and timestamps.
    2. Transmission: These packets are sent over an IP network to the recipient.
    3. Reassembly: The recipient uses the sequence numbers and timestamps to reorder and synchronize the packets for smooth playback.
    4. Quality Feedback: RTCP (Real-Time Control Protocol) is used alongside RTP. It provides feedback on quality metrics like jitter and packet loss. This enables adjustments if needed.

    Example of RTP

    Below is a basic example of an RTP packet header:

    +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+
|V=2|P|X|  CC   |M|     PT      |       Sequence Number         |
+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+
|                           Timestamp                           |
+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+
|           Synchronization Source (SSRC) Identifier           |
+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+
    What is RTP Real-time Transport Protocol

    Key Fields:

    • Version (V): Identifies the RTP version (usually 2).
    • Sequence Number: Helps detect packet loss and reorder packets.
    • Timestamp: Indicates when the packet should be played back.
    • SSRC: Identifies the media source in a session.

    For example, in a VoIP call, RTP packets carry compressed audio data encoded using codecs like G.711 or G.729, which are then synchronized for playback on the receiver’s end.


    RTP is a backbone technology for real-time multimedia communications, making your video calls, live streams, and conferences possible. By understanding RTP, you gain insights into how modern communication systems deliver seamless experiences. Explore related topics on protocols and technologies at howtokh.com, and stay informed about the ever-evolving tech landscape.

    When We Use RTP Protocol in Network:

    1. Voice over IP (VoIP) Calls
      • RTP is used to carry the actual audio stream during an Internet phone call. This happens after the call is set up with SIP/SDP.
    2. Video Conferencing
      • Applications like Zoom, Microsoft Teams, and Webex use RTP to transport video and audio streams in real time.
    3. Streaming Media
      • RTP is used for live streaming (radio, TV broadcasts, webinars) where real-time delivery of audio and video is required.
    4. WebRTC (Browser-Based Communication)
      • WebRTC uses RTP to transmit real-time audio, video, and data between browsers for things like video chats and screen sharing.
    5. Online Gaming Voice Chat
      • Many multiplayer games use RTP to deliver in-game voice chat between players with minimal delay.
    6. IPTV and Multimedia Services
      • Internet-based television services use RTP to deliver continuous streams of video and audio to viewers.

    RTP is used whenever real-time audio or video needs to be transmitted across an IP network. Unlike SIP or SDP (which set up the session), RTP actually carries the media stream during communication.

    Comparison of RTP vs. VoIP

    FeatureRTP (Real-Time Transport Protocol)VoIP (Voice over IP)
    DefinitionA protocol that delivers real-time audio and video data over IP networks.A technology/method that allows voice communication over IP networks instead of traditional phone lines.
    Primary PurposeTransport media (audio/video) in real time.Enable voice communication using IP networks.
    Function in CommunicationCarries the actual audio/video stream during a call or session.Manages the overall process of making, receiving, and managing calls over IP networks.
    Associated ProtocolsWorks with SIP, H.323, SDP, RTSP, WebRTC.Uses protocols like SIP, H.323, RTP, and sometimes MGCP or SCCP.
    RoleMedia delivery (payload transport).Service/technology for voice communication.
    Real-Time CapabilitiesYes, designed for low-latency delivery of audio/video streams.Depends on underlying protocols (usually uses RTP for media).
    ScopeA transport protocol only.Broader concept including signaling, session management, and media transport.
    Example UseTransmitting voice in a Zoom call or video in an IPTV stream.Making a Skype call, Teams meeting, or any VoIP phone call.

    In short:

    • VoIP is the overall technology that enables voice communication over IP networks.
    • RTP is a protocol used within VoIP. It is also used in other real-time apps. The purpose is to carry the actual audio or video streams during the session.